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2.0:
Tension-type headache This section includes classification 2.1 Episodic tension-type headache; 2.2 Chronic tension-type headache; and 2.3 Tension-type headache not fulfilling the above criteria. Migraine and tension-type headache often exist together in the same patient. This was previously called combination headache, or mixed muscle contraction headache. These patients represent a continuum varying from those who have pure migraine to those who with migraine and a moderate amount of tension-type headache, to those with half of each, those with a preponderance of tension-type headache, to those with pure tension-type headache. Therefore, mixed cephalalgia is arbitrary. It is recommended that patients should instead be coded for migraine and for tension-type headache if they have both forms. I would emphasize here, as dicussed further below, that all attempts to determine the migrainous component of headaches believed to be "tension" be considered and actively sought as therapy for migraine may be very beneficial. Episodic tension-type headaches are described as recurrent episodes of headache lasting minutes to days. The pain is typically pressing/tightening in quality, of mild or moderate intensity, bilateral in location, and does not worsen with routine physical activity. Nausea is absent, but photophobia or phonophobia may be present. The following diagnostic criteria are listed:
About 50% of patients seen in headache clinics are thought to suffer from muscle contraction (tension) headaches (Lance et al., 1965; Diamond and Bates, 1972). In addition, a substantial percentage of patients who visit emergency rooms with headache complaints are eventually diagnosed as having muscle contraction headaches (Leicht, 1980). It is therefore common for physicians in all specialties to be confronted with the patient who complains of pain and tightness over the eyes and in the back of the head and neck. These sensations are variously described as vise-like, pressure, a constricting band, drawing, and aching. Tenderness throughout the trapezius muscles is commonly associated with the above complaints and is most intense along the top of the shoulders and in the upper neck. Many patients also describe pain, pressure, or paresthesia over the vertex of the head. Pain can often be elicited by palpation of the trapezius muscles. Wolff and his colleagues (Schumaker et al., 1940; Tunis and Wolff, 1954) studied the effect of head pain upon the head and neck muscles. They recorded muscle potentials on a two-channel, ink-writing oscillograph by applying solder electrodes over the frontal, temporal, occipital, and neck muscles. Brief head pain was induced by intravenous injection of histamine. Contraction of the head and neck muscles was observed in association with the pain, but no pain arose from the muscles themselves, probably because of the short duration of the induced head pain. With respect to the eyes themselves, an irritant introduced into the conjunctival sac sometimes caused, reflexly, contraction of the head and neck muscles and resulted in secondary pain and paresthesia in the head and neck. Abnormally sustained contraction of the ocular muscles produced by placing a 3-diopter vertical prism in front of the dominant eye caused a sustained contraction in the neck muscles, followed by pain in the neck and shoulder. Observations were made in patients with pain in the occiput and neck associated with inflammation or other dysfunction about the head. It was found that in these subjects, there was sustained contraction of the neck and head muscles. The intensity of pain in the neck and over the back of the head could be modified by changing the state of muscle contraction. On the basis of these and other studies, it has been assumed that the exceedingly common ``tension headache'' found in emotionally tense, aggressive, frustrated, and anxious individuals is caused by sustained contraction of the head and neck skeletal muscles. It has been suggested that such headaches occur from vasoconstriction of the nutrient arterioles during this period. Evidence for such vasoconstriction is abundant. Tunis and Wolff (1954) found evidence of increased vasoconstriction in a population of headache patients compared to no-headache control subjects. Ostfield et al. (1957), Feuerstein et al. (1976), and Friedman and Merritt (1959) have reported similar results. Wolff (1963) found that the induction of head pain was associated with increases in cephalic vasoconstriction. Thus, it has been postulated that, by producing ischemia of the head and neck skeletal muscles, sustained muscular contraction leads to headache. The validity of this underlying diagnostic assumption is especially important when one considers that many behavioral strategies designed to reduce tension headache (e.g., biofeedback) utilize information regarding muscle tension as an integral part of treatment. Unfortunately, the evidence for increased muscle contraction as well as vasoconstriction as major factors in the production of ``tension'' headache, is far from clear. Haynes et al. (1975) reported that subjects who report frequent tension headaches have overall higher electromyographic (EMG) resting levels than control subjects. Similar findings were reported by Vaughn et al. (1977) and Philips (1977b). However, EMG frontalis resting levels in tension headache subjects studied by Martin and Mathews (1978) did not differ from those of control subjects. In addition, Bakal and Kaganov (1977) monitored frontalis muscle tension levels in groups of muscle contraction headache subjects and control subjects and found no significant differences between groups. Sutton and Belar (1982) have compared the frontalis EMG levels of medically diagnosed headache patients and non-headache control subjects during baseline, stress, and pleasant thought conditions. They have concluded that no simple, direct relationship exists between headache pain and muscle tension levels. Similarly, Epstein et al. (1978) have found a lack of correlation between EMG changes and treatment outcome in patients with ``tension headache.'' With respect to presumed vasoconstriction during tension headaches, Onel et al. (1961) found that there may be localized vasodilation during such headaches. In this study, the clearance rates of injected radioactive sodium were found to be faster during headache than non-headache states. No significant difference was found in clearance rates between control subjects and headache patients in a non-headache state. In addition, Martin and Mathews (1978) found that injection of amyl nitrate, a vasodilator, during a muscle contraction headache was associated with an increase rather than a decrease in reported head pain and that no such increase was reported following injection of a placebo. Finally, Bakal and Kaganov (1977) found no significant differences in pulse wave velocity among patients with migraine headaches, tension headaches, and control subjects. It would appear that although some studies suggest that muscle tension in the neck and shoulders may result from head pain and in the tense individual may even generate head pain through vasomotor changes, it remains impossible to presume a reliable etiologic role for muscle tension or vasomotor activity because of conflicting experimental data. To adequately account for tension headache, reference to other personal, social, or physiologic variables must be included. As Haynes et al. (1982) have emphasized, tension headache is a self-report phenomenon, and self reports of pain are under strong historic and immediate social learning influences. Social contingencies from family, friends, and others can have a strong influence on the report of pain. Other factors that may be important in the understanding of such headaches include frequency and types of environmental stressors; cognitive attributions, attention, or structure; differential pain thresholds; physiologic/anatomic factors; and previous experience with pain. The pain of tension headache may be treated in some cases with simple analgesics or with combination drugs (Glassman et al., 1982), with biofeedback, and, most importantly, with counseling. Even acupuncture may offer relief in some individuals (Loh et al., 1984). The interested reader is directed to the excellent review of this subject by Haynes et al. (1982). Muscle contraction or tension headache has been characterized as head pain without migrainous features. Typically, the headache is described as bilateral, commonly in an occipital or posterior neck location, variable in intensity, dull, with pressure and tightness in muscles and in association with emotional conflict (Raskin, 1988; Daroff, 1988). They tend to occur on a daily basis but may be intermittent or periodic. On careful analysis there are many overlapping features common to migraine. Features at one time believed to be specific for tension headache, such as neck muscle contraction and precipitation by stress and anxiety, are know known to occur just as often in migraine (Ziegle, 1985). Indeed many patients with daily constant headache, without throbbing and having a "band-like" tightness may respond to antimigrainous therapy. On further elicitation of the past history many constant daily headaches are indeed "transformed migraine". There are many, including Raskin (1988), who believe that muscle contraction headaches and migraine headache form a continuum and blend into each other. Even though a headache may be described as "band-like" and constant, careful history may elicit factors favoring vascular headaches. For example, there may be family history of migraine; above average susceptibility to motion sickness, nausea, photophobia, phonophobia and other features that suggest there is migraine-like symptomatology. Standard migraine abortive and prophylactic therapy may then be quite beneficial. Clearly there are patients with major psychological problems who have psychogenic headaches as a feature of their disorder, but in a majority without features which permit a diagnosis of probable or definite migraine, the distinction is often difficult. Muscle contraction or tension headaches do overlap significantly with migraine, as indicated above, and may respond to similar therapy. Antidepressant therapy in the form of tricyclics may be helpful in both muscle contraction and migraine headaches. In the International Headache Society Classification, there is a classification 2.3 for headaches of the tension-type, not fulfilling the above criteria. These are headaches which are believed to be a form of tension-type headache, but which do not quite meet the International diagnostic criteria for any of the forms of tension-type headache. In the description of headache of the tension-type not fulfilling the above criteria, that is category 2.3 in the IHS Classification, it should be noted that chronic tension-type headache associated with disorders of paracranial muscles, called chronic muscle contraction headache, is coded as 2.2.1. A fourth digit code number for group 2 indicates a likely causitive factor (Olesen, 1988). This includes oral mandibular dysfunction or temporal mandibular joint pain dysfunction syndrome which is discussed elsewhere. It also includes psychosocial stress (DSM III-R criteria). Diagnostic criteria are the following: .
At one point an Ad Hoc Committee on Classification of Headache recommended separate categories for "Headaches of Delusional, Conversion, or Hyperchondriacal States" and for "Muscle-Contraction Headache" but others prefer to combine these into a category of "psychogenic headaches" under which there are the subtypes: depression (overt or masked), delusional (in a psychotic), somatoform disorder, chronic post-traumatic, chronic atypical facial pain, and muscle contraction pain (when due to psychogenic factor and not unusual postures or strains) (Daroff, 1988). Psychogenic Headaches It should be obvious that virtually all types of headaches are, at least to some extent, dependent on emotional factors and individual personalities. In addition, psychotic patients and those suffering from anxiety neuroses are prone to describe pressure sensation, pain in the vertex or in the occiput, a sensation of bands about the head, or a sensation of something being driven into the skull (clavus hystericus). Their description of the severity, continuity, and bizarre features of the headache is usually sufficient to indicate the diagnosis. Most essential to the diagnosis is evidence for a basic personality disorder, of which the headache is but a part. The headache appears or disappears with the mental state that engendered it (Packard, 1979). It should be emphasized, however, that although depression (as well as other affective disorders) may produce headache (Weatherhead, 1980), chronic nonpsychogenic headaches may produce depression (Martin, 1978; Cox and Thomas, 1981).
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